2.
   2024
   
 
(      )
   3      75
:-     -    ,           
            
 -
1.(i)              
(ii) DBA           ?
(iii) , R,   (A, B, C, D, E, F) FD  :
->  ->  ->  ->  ->  -> 
R            
2.(i)    :   ,       
(ii)      ,   ,       ER  
    .          ER    
     
 -
3.         INF, 2NF  3NF 
                  '   
2.
4. -                  
 -
5.     '   :
 ( :  ,   : ,   : , :  )
(i) SQL               
(ii) -              
SQL   
6. 
       ?        ' -
         SQL  -    JOIN  ?    
 
-
7. DBMS       -        
  2PL    
8.   '  :
(   )
(ii)     
(ij) NoSQL
2.
   2024
   
 
(      )
   3      75
:-     -    ,           
            
 -
1.(i)              
(ii) DBA           ?
(iii) , R,   (A, B, C, D, E, F) FD  :
->  ->  ->  ->  ->  -> 
R            
:   (i):         
󹻂  
                
        
  ,   -   :
1.  -         ( , SSD, )
2.   -           
3.  -     (, )
2.
󹻂  
  :
                
   
 
󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷  
                :
 (  ., , )
   
      "Email"  :
 ( , , , )
,       (
   )
         
 ,    

 
󷃆󽅕
󷃆󼽢  
       (     ) 
-  
        
    
 
󹻂 
  :
               '
   '     
󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷  
           :
 
, DBA (    )     :
   B+   
2.
      ,   (, , )   
󷃆󽅕  

󷃆󼽢  
            
  '  
 
DBAs        
󹻀 
   
    
   


 , 
 , 

 , 
, , 
  (ii):          
              :
 -  
 
  -      
󹻀   
        
󷃆󼽢 
1.   
o           
o ,       
2.   
o   
2.
o            
3.  
o     
o     ,    
4.  
o   
o      
5.    
o    ( , NULL 
, )
o        
6. DBMS      
o   
o  '     
7.    
o      ,   
o      
󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷 
          ,  DBA   

:
 HR         
     ,       
        
󹻀    
        
󷃆󼽢 
1. 
2.
o          
2.     
o ,       
3.  
o    
o      (1NF, 2NF, 3NF, )
4. ER   
o       -  
5.       
o      ,    
6.    
o          ( , INT, VARCHAR)
󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷 
     ,    
:
 (  , , )
( , , )
( ,  ,    )
          ,    
  
    
  (iii): R        
    :
 R(A, B, C, D, E, F)
  (FDs):
1. 
2. 
3.  
2.
4.
5. C → E
6.  
      -   -      
    
󹻀 

       (  X )  :
X⁺ (X   ) = {A, B, C, D, E, F}
    X   ,     , 
  
  
󹻀  
            :
F   :
 
 


C → E (     E )
󷃆󽅕
 
   
󷃆󼽢 
F⁺ = {F, B, D, E, A, C} = 
󹻀 
 !
 F⁺ =  ,  F   ,    
            
2.
A  :

C → E
E → A ( ),   F  B 

  A    

 :

C → E ( ),    B  F 
  E    

󹻀
󷃆󼽢

:
F    ,       , 
  
  
    (       
 )
2.(i)    :   ,       
(ii)      ,   ,       ER  
    .          ER    
     
:1.   
:         (    )     
       
  :
    
 NULL 
 
2.
         
 :
        
  .
 

 
101

18
12
102

19
12
103

18
12
, Roll_No      
:
       
      

 , 
         Roll_No   
 
󹻂 
  :
                
  '       ,     
 
  :
          
       ,      
 :    :
 

 


18
12
ramesh@gmail.com

19
12
suresh@gmail.com

18
12
mahesh@gmail.com
:
2.
  . 
   
,   .     
      ,
       
󹻂 
  :
                
 
          
  :
        
       (      )
 :
       :
  1: 
  .
 

 
101

18
12
102

19
12
  2:  
_
  .

1
101
5000
2
102
4500
:
  .    
  .      
     
            
2.
󹻂
  :
                  '
      ,  ,        
  
 
  :
          

      
 :
   :
  .
 

 
101

18
12
  :
  .
  .+ 
  .+  +  
         ,   Roll_No  -  
 ,        
󼨐󼨑󼨒  
 

 NULL   
?
   

 
 

󽅂
 1
  .



󽅂
1  
, _ 
 
󽅂


󷃆󼽢
0  
  : (
)
2.
 

 NULL   
?
   

 
 

󽅂
 
_
+
 2 (ii):    ER      ,   ,     
               ER
         
󹻁   
ER (-)           

 :
(, ,   )
(  , )
( "  ", "
 ")
󹴡󹴵󹴣󹴤  
󹻂 
  :
 
            
   3   :
   (1:1)
   (1:N)
   (M:N)
  :
       → 1:1
    
  → 1:N
         M:N
2.
ER      :
              :
o (1,1), (0,N), 
󹻂  
  :
            ,  
     
  
 :
    :
       
,      -    :


ER      :
   " "  ""      
󹻂
  :
               
 
2.
  :
     

    ()  '   
     
:
   :
        
      
 
      
ER      :
    
    
     
󹻂
  :
           
 :
<    >— 
:
" "  ( )   ()     
 :
     
             (
) 
󷪛󷪜󷪝󷪞󷪟󷪠󷪢󷪡   
         ER   
󷕘󷕙󷕚  
2.
1. 
o   .( )
o 
o 
o 
2. 
o _( )
o   
o 
3. 
o _( )
o 
o 
4. _  (  )
o _
( )
o 
o 
󹹋󹹌
1.   (    )
o -- (M:N)
2.  
 (     )
o -- (1:N) —     
 
3.   (  _   )
o -- (1:N)
o  
󹲹󹲺󹲻󹲼󹵉󹵊󹵋󹵌󹵍  
2.
 ( ): _  (), , , 
 ( ):_(),  , 
 ( ):_ (),, 
_ ( ) :_
( ), , 
:
     --
   
-   
     _ , --
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 
   :
  .
 


101

18
amit@gmail.com '  
102

19
sumit@gmail.com
 :
_
  

01

4
C02

3
    :
_
 

01
 

T02
 

_   :
2.
_


  (FK)
001
2025-01-15
5000
101
002
2025-02-12
5000
102
󷃆󼽢
  ,    :
   (, , , )      

        ,  ,  , 
  ER     
           -
 
 
 -
3.         INF, 2NF  3NF 
                  '   
: :   , ,   (1NF, 2NF, 3NF),    -   
  
󼨐󼨑󼨒 
   :
              (
)         (  )  
 
   
          

     -  ,    ,    
     ,  , 
       
      
2.
󷗭󷗨󷗩󷗪󷗫󷗬 

         
󹺾  
           :
_
 

_

101

.
15000
 
102

...
20000
 
103

.
15000
 
104


18000
 
 :
      -  
 
 .   ,      '   
  
󷃆󼽢  

      :
1.  
2.  
3.  
  :
       
 
      ,  
   '  
  
,  
󷃆󹸊󹸋  
    (NFs)      :

 

1
  (1NF)
    
2.
2
    (2NF)
  
3
  (3NF)
  
         -    
󼨻󼨼  
󽄡󽄢󽄣󽄤󽄥󽄦 
   1NF   :
    ()  
       

󽅂  

_
 

101

., .
102

...
,         

󷃆󼽢 
_
 

101

.
101

.
102

...
    () ,    1NF  
󼨸󼨹󼨺 
   1NF  :
""    
       
    
, 
    2NF   
2.
󼨻󼨼 
󽄡󽄢󽄣󽄤󽄥󽄦 
  2NF   :
   1NF  
   

󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂 
  -  (  )       '   , 
   
   '          (       )
󹺾 

_

 
_
101
.

15000
102
...

20000
 : (_+ )
:
  '   _
_  '   
 ,     
󷃆󼽢
     :
󷕘󷕙󷕚
_
 
101

102

󹴡󹴵󹴣󹴤
2.

_
.
15000
...
20000
󹲹󹲺󹲻󹲼󹵉󹵊󹵋󹵌󹵍   
_

101
.
102
...
:
         '   
   
,    2NF  
󼨻󼨼  
󽄡󽄢󽄣󽄤󽄥󽄦 
  3NF   :
   2NF  
   

󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂
 A → B  B → C ,  A → C    
   :
   -  '   
   ' 
󹺾 

_
 

_
_
101

.
 

:
2.
_
_
_ _
 ,   
󷃆󼽢
  :
󷕘󷕙󷕚
_

101

󹲹󹲺󹲻󹲼󹵉󹵊󹵋󹵌󹵍   
_

101
.
󹴡󹴵󹴣󹴤

_
.
 
󷽰󷽱󸚌󷽲󷽳󷽴󷽵󷽶󸚍󷽷󸚎󸚏󷽸󷽹󸚐󷽺󷽻󸚑󸚒󷽼󷽽󷽾󷽿󷾀󷾁󷾂󷾃󷾄󷾅󷾆󷾇󷾈󷾉󸚓
_
_
 

:
  -    -  '  

    '   
 3NF 
󼿰󼿱󼿲   
           ,     
:
2.
1. 󽅇󽅈   
        
  : ,  ,  , 
 SQL     
 
2. 󽅇󽅈     
     ,     
 ,        , 
4 
  
           
3. 󽅇󽅈    
        
              
󷃆󼽢  
    :
      
 
     
        
   ,   
     (  
)     
󷃆󼽢  
  

   
1NF
  
-   
 
2
   
    
 
3NF
   
  
 
2.
󼨐󼨑󼨒 
       -  -   ,

   
 
1NF →     2NF →  3NF — --
   , -      
 
   ,   ,      
4. -                  
:- ( )
   
            
      ,         , 
           ,    
 

   ( )    ,      , 
    (DBMS)       
   
       -   , -
        :
  (, , )
   
  
        
   , 
  " "   -    
   - 
 - ,          , -   
       
1.      
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳 
            :
2.
 ',      ( , )
 ,      ( ,  )
,    
   ,      
 ,      :
   : “   ” →  1
      -  ,      
󷃆󼽢 
 :
     (  )  ,   
  :             
  
󽅂 
  
: 
    (     )
 
 
 : 
 
   ,     
  
2.       
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳 
,             ?
    
  ,        
,          ,        
     
     ,       
󷃆󼽢 
-- :        
    :      
2.
󽅂 
   :          
  :         
3.      (  )
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳 
  
         , 
 
   :
   
   
    
       
  :
    





1
 
 
..



    
 

 
101

9876543210

          ( , ,  )
         (MySQL, Oracle, )
󷃆󼽢 
  :      
2.
    :    
    : SQL (  )   
    :
           
󽅂 
    
           
       
,     
4. -   
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳 
,      
,  ,    3D   
  
    
 -   (    )  
(    )    
  :
 ""     : , , ISBN
 ""     : , , 
 -  (OOP)  
          -  

󷃆󼽢 
    : , , 
     : , 3D ,  
:     
󽅂 
    

       
2.
  ,       
5.       (NoSQL)
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳 
   
            
   — JSON  
 :
{
"": "   ",
"": ".. ",
"": " ",
"": 2010
}
              

  MongoDB  NoSQL     
󷃆󼽢 
 :    
;      
:   ( , - )     
 :    
󽅂 
   
:  ,      
       

          
6. -    
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳 
2.
 
      
  
     
 :
"101"→ "   "
"102"→ "  "
     :          
,  ,  -      ( , Redis, DynamoDB)
󷃆󼽢 
   
 
 ,  ,   
󽅂 
    
 :     
󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂 

  
   




 ,
 
, 
,  --
  
 

,

, 
 

 (
 )
, ,

,

  SQL
  
 -
  (OOP)
, 
-

 , 

(NoSQL)
JSON 
 ,  
,

  

-
(NoSQL)
 (
)
,  
, 
  
2.
 -
5.     '   :
 ( :  ,   : ,   : , :  )
(i) SQL               
(ii) -              
SQL   
:󼨐󼨑󼨒      
   
     
    '    

        SQL     
󼨻󼨼 
    SQL             
  '       
SQL       :
1. 
2. 
3. 
󷗭󷗨󷗩󷗪󷗫󷗬  
  Student          :

 
 

1


20
2


22
3


21
4


19
5


22
            :
2.
󷃆󼽢
: 
            22   
  * 
 = ''   = 22;
󷃆󼽢

 
 

5


22
:         :       22
 
󷃆󼽢 
: 
         20       
 
  * 
  = 20   = '';
󷃆󼽢

 
 

1


20
2


22
:  20   ,           OR  
   
󷃆󼽢
: 
       22      
  * 
  
= 22;
2.
󷃆󼽢

 
 

1


20
3


21
4


19
:NOT   
     22   
,  

󷃆󼽢   
: 
            22   

  * 
 = ''   
= 22;
󷃆󼽢

 
 

3


21
:    ,        22    
󼨐󼨑󼨒 

          :
  * 
( = ''  = '')   < 22;
 22              
󹳨󹳤󹳩󹳪󹳫    
     
󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷
2.
             (   
)            
󹺁󹺂
1.  ()-     
2. ()-   
3.  ()-   
4. -()- -   
5.    ()-      
        :

 
 

1


20
2


22
3


21
4


19
5


22
󷃆󼽢
: 
        
  _  COUNT(*) ;
󷃆󼽢
_
5
󷃆󼽢
: 
          
  _  () ;
2.
󷃆󼽢
_
104
(20 + 22 + 21 + 19 + 22 = 104)
󷃆󼽢
: 
      
()   _ ;
󷃆󼽢
_
20.8
(104 / 5 = 20.8)
󷃆󼽢
: 
        
-()       ;
󷃆󼽢
   
19
󷃆󼽢
: 
        
   ()     _ ;
󷃆󼽢
  _
2.
22
󷃆󼽢 
: 
         
 ,  (*) _  
 
     ;
󷃆󼽢

 _
19
1
20
1
21
1
22
2
: 22     2  ,     -
󷃆󼽢 
󹸯󹸭󹸮  
:      
: -      

:   
 
󼩕󼩖󼩗󼩘󼩙󼩚 
COUNT() -   
SUM() -    
AVG() -  
MIN() -    
MAX() –    
2.
6. 
       ?        ' -
         SQL  -    JOIN  ?    
 
:        :
   
              
 :
1.  (_, , )
2.  (_, , )
3.  _ (_, _, _)
, 
           :
      ?
            ?
     ,          
       
󷆰  
                
  , 
   :
   ( ,   )
  ( ,     )
  (    )
   (     )
     SQL (  ) 
󹴡󹴵󹴣󹴤     
             SQL  
 
            '    
2.
:
A.    (TRC)
, 
   ()    

 : "            "
󽄬󽄭󽄮󽄯󽄰 
   
       
    ,     :
{ t | t   t.  = '' }
  :       t     =  
B.    (DRC)
, 
        ()    
󽄬󽄭󽄮󽄯󽄰 
   
      
   :
{  |   ( (, , )   = '') }
  :        ,      
  
󹹋󹹌 
         - SQL  JOINs
            ,  
   ,  
JOIN    
  :
       
 _  __
 
            ,  
     
2.
A.  
         
󼪺󼪻 
  ,  __
 
     _
 '   =     ;
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 
B.   (     )
       ,        
   
,   NULL    
󼪺󼪻 
  ,  __
 
    _
 '   =     ;
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 
C.   (     )
LEFT JOIN  ,        
󼪺󼪻 
  ,  __
 
    _
 '   =     ;
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨
2.
D.   (     )
      
     NULLs  
     

󼪺󼪻 
  ,  __
 
     _
 '   =     ;
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 

󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷  

 
 
     

       ()   

   ()   
  
   
  
    +     
  
    +     
   
    
󼨐󼨑󼨒 
JOIN -       :
 :          
   :    ,     
   :     ,     
   :     
2.
-
7. DBMS       -        
  2PL          
:DBMS     ?
                 
            ?    
              ?
 ,     (DBMS) ,    ( )   
                ,  :
        
    
 
    , DBMS        
  - (    /     )   
          
󹳬󹳭󹳮󹳯󹳰󹳳󹳱󹳲  
  DBMS     -        
 :
1.  -  
          
  -      ,      
 :     
       
   
 :
    (S- ): 
   (- ): 
2.  -  
 -  '     
2.
-  /       
 -    
 :           
3.   -   (     )
-              
     ,  -     
 :     ,     ,   
    
4.    (MVCC)
      
            ,    
 
 
 :              
    
5. -     (2PL)
         '     
   
  ( -     
)
       
 
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳
   
       ()      
   
:

   :
  
 
 
          ,   -  (2PL) 
  
 
2.
      :
󽄬󽄭󽄮󽄯󽄰   

      (    )
:           

 :

 , "  3   " → 
 3      
 , "
 5 '   " → 
 5    , 
   ...
󹸾󹸿󹹀   
   
     ,  
  
 
 
        
 :

 3 '      
     
    

  
          
     
?
    
          
,   
  -  

 -        :
󼪺󼪻  
 -   :
T1:  A  B  ₹100  
T2:  A + B      
2PL   :
T1 A = ₹1000  
T1 ₹100 
  A = ₹900
T2   A = ₹900
2.
T1, B → B  ₹100   = ₹1100
T2   B = ₹1100
T2  = ₹2000 
  󽅂  (₹2100   )
2PL   :
 1:
 (-)
 A = ₹1000
= - 100
  (-)
 B = ₹1000
 =  + 100
A  = ₹900
B  = ₹1100
A  B '  
2:
T1       
 A = ₹900, B = ₹1100  
 = ₹2000 󷃆󼽢 
 2PL    
   T2      T1       
   ,   
󼨐󼨑󼨒  
   =   ,   
   =    ,    
      , -    
 
   
         
  
2.
󷃆󼽢 
     
 
      :
o   
o  
o     
     (   ,    - )
󼿰󼿱󼿲
    :   -         

   -         
 DBMS              
󷙎󷙐󷙏
  , DBMS            
         2PL      
            
8.   '  :
(i). (  )
(ii).     
:(i)  
  ...
   
      
     
 
  ,  
   ,     ,    , 
     '      
  ,         :
2.
 
 
   
    
   ,   
     !       ,      
  
,   ,   
󹴡󹴵󹴣󹴤  
        
      
      
    
,             , 
  ,       
󹴂󹴃󹴄󹴅󹴉󹴊󹴆󹴋󹴇󹴈
       ,  5 V      5 :
1.   -   
:        
2.  -  
: YouTube       
3.  - -  
: , , ,   , GPS 
4.   - 
:         ?
5.  - 
:             
 
2.
󼨽󼨾󼨿󼩁󼩀    
     
         :
  
  
  - 
  

 
 
  -    
             
        :
          
         
           
     
         
󼩣󼩤󼩥󼩦󼩧󼩨󼩩  
     MS Excel       
   ,

    :
 -          
  -   
-     -    
  -     ( )
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨
      
(  YouTube        '     )
2.
      
 
(     -         )
,          
(         )
󹲨󹲭󹲩󹲪󹲫󹲬  
󼨐󼨑󼨒 

   '    ,   '       3
    ,    ,  
      󺆇󺆄󺆈󺆅󺆆
   — MS Word  - ,   
    , 
       !
          ,    
󹴡󹴵󹴣󹴤 
               -
  ,  ,  
  
               
󼿝󼿞󼿟   
    ""   -   :
1.   -       
2. -         (    
)    
3.   -       
4.    ,     
󷃆󹸃󹸄

   
   ₹5,000          
                 
 ,      ! 󽅂
2.
 ,     
 :
  

   
           

󼩣󼩤󼩥󼩦󼩧󼩨󼩩    
1. -  
              
    ,       
     ,       
    
 :
 
    70  80   ,    :
 :70
  : 80
     ,            

2. 
        
   ,         
     ,           
  
 :

  2     1            ,  
     ,   
3.  
         
     ,     ()  '   
2.
 -   ,        
 :

         , 
    
     ,  
      
4.       
  -  -    
  -           
 :
  -   ,         
 
           
󹸾󹸿󹹀
  ACID     ,       :
A   :     
C -   :     
I  :-    

D –   :     ,        
   
         ,    
 
󼨐󼨑󼨒    

  
   

,   
     

 ,  
 - ,   
 
, , 
  ,  -
 /
 , , 
, , ,  

 -   ,  
  ,     
2.
"                 
 
    ,           "